Which of the following is considered an established scientific theory?

The concept of plate tectonics is recognized as an established scientific theory because it is supported by a significant body of empirical evidence and has undergone rigorous testing and peer review. The theory explains the movements of Earth's lithosphere, which is divided into tectonic plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them. This framework not only accounts for the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes but also explains phenomena such as continental drift, mountain formation, and ocean basin development.

Established scientific theories, like plate tectonics, are characterized by their ability to make predictions that can be tested and verified through observations and experiments. Over the years, numerous lines of evidence from fields like geology, paleontology, and oceanography have validated the theory, making it a foundational aspect of modern earth sciences.

In contrast, concepts like intelligent design and the internal combustion engine do not hold the same status as established scientific theories. Intelligent design lacks empirical support and does not derive from a systematic scientific methodology. Meanwhile, while the internal combustion engine represents a well-engineered construct based on scientific principles, it does not fit the definition of a scientific theory that explains natural phenomena across a broad range of contexts. The conservation of mass is a fundamental law rather than a theory and is part of the broader framework